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11. For who would not see what the apostle meant to say, and how
wisely he has said it, in the
following passage: "We glory in tribulations also: knowing that
tribulation worketh patience; and
patience, experience; and experience, hope: and hope maketh not
ashamed; because the love of
God is shed abroad in our hearts by the Holy Ghost which is given
unto us"? Now were any man
unlearnedly learned (if I may use the expression) to contend that
the apostle had here followed the
rules of rhetoric, would not every Christian, learned or
unlearned, laugh at him? And yet here we
find the figure which is called in Greek "klimax" (climax,) and by
some in Latin gradatio, for they
do not care to call it scala (a ladder), when the words and ideas
have a connection of dependency
the one upon the other, as we see here that patience arises out of
tribulation, experience out of
patience, and hope out of experience. Another ornament, too, is
found here; for after certain
statements finished in a single tone of voice, which we call
clauses and sections (membra et
caesa), but the Greeks "koola" and "kommata", there follows a
rounded sentence (ambitus sive
circuitus) which the Greeks call "periodos", the clauses of which
are suspended on the voice of
the speaker till the whole is completed by the last clause. For of
the statements which precede the
period; this is the first clause, "knowing that tribulation
worketh patience;" the second, "and
patience, experience;" the third, "and experience, hope." Then the
period which is subjoined is
completed in three clauses, of which the first is, "and hope
maketh not ashamed;" the second,
"because the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts;" the third,
"by the Holy Ghost which is
given unto us." But these and other matters of the same kind are
taught in the art of elocution. As
then I do not affirm that the apostle was guided by the rules of
eloquence, so I do not deny that
his wisdom naturally produced, and was accompanied by, eloquence.
12. In the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, again, he refutes
certain false apostles who had
gone out from the Jews, and had been trying to injure his
character; and being compelled to speak
of himself though he ascribes this as folly to himself how wisely
and how eloquently he speaks!
But wisdom is his guide, eloquence his attendant; he follows the
first, the second follows him, and
yet he does not spurn it when it comes after him. "I say again,"
he says, "Let no man think me a
fool: if otherwise, yet as a fool receive me, that I may boast
myself a little. That which I speak, I
speak it not after the Lord, but as it were foolishly, in this
confidence of boasting. Seeing that
many glory after the flesh, I will glory also. For ye suffer fools
gladly, seeing ye yourselves are
wise. For ye suffer, if a man bring you into bondage, if a man
devour you, if a man take of you, if
a man exalt himself, if a man smite you on the face. I speak as
concerning reproach, as though we
had been weak. Howbeit, whereinsoever any is bold (I speak
foolishly), I am bold also. Are they
Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are they the seed
of Abraham? so am I. Are they
ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool), I am more: in labours
more abundant, in stripes above
measure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths oft. Of the Jews five
times received I forty stripes
save one, thrice was I beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice
I suffered shipwreck, a night
and a day I have been in the deep; in journeying often, in perils
of waters, in perils of robbers, in
perils by mine own countrymen, in perils by the heathen, in perils
in the city, in perils in the
wilderness, in perils in the sea, in perils among false brethren;
in weariness and painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold
and nakedness. Besides those
things which are without, that which comets upon me daily, the
care of all the churches. Who is
weak, and I am not weak? who is offended, and I burn not? If I
must needs glory, I will glory of
the things which concern my infirmities." The thoughtful and
attentive perceive how much
wisdom there is in these words. And even a man sound asleep must
notice what a stream of
eloquence flows through them.
13. Further still, the educated man
observes that those sections
which the Greeks call "kommata", and the clauses and periods of
which I spoke a short time ago,
being intermingled in the most beautiful variety, make up the
whole form and features (so to
speak) of that diction by which even the unlearned are delighted
and affected. For, from the place
where I commenced to quote, the passage consists of periods: the
first the smallest possible,
consisting of two members; for a period cannot have less than two
members, though it may have
more: "I say again, let no man think me a fool." The next has
three members: "if otherwise, yet as
a fool receive me, that I may boast myself a little." The third
has four members: "That which I
speak, I speak it not after the Lord, but as it were foolishly, in
this confidence of boasting." The
fourth has two: "Seeing that many glory after the flesh, I will
glory also." And the fifth has two:
"For ye suffer fools gladly, seeing ye yourselves are wise." The
sixth again has two members: "for
ye suffer, if a man bring you into bondage." Then follow three
sections (caesa): "if a man devour
you, if a man take of you, if a man exalt himself." Next three
clauses (membra): if "a man smite
you on the face. I speak as concerning reproach, as though we had
been weak." Then is subjoined
a period of three members: "Howbeit, whereinsoever any is bold (I
speak foolishly), I am bold
also." After this, certain separate sections being put in the
interrogatory form, separate sections
are also given as answers, three to three: "Are they Hebrews? so
am I. Are they Israelites? so am
I. Are they the seed of Abraham? so am I." But a fourth section
being put likewise in the
interrogatory form, the answer is given not in another section (caesum)
but in a clause
(membrum): "Are they the ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool.)
I am more." Then the next four
sections are given continuously, the interrogatory form being most
elegantly suppressed: "in
labours more abundant, in stripes above measure, in prisons more
frequent, in deaths oft." Next is
interposed a short period; for, by a suspension of the voice, "of
the Jews five times" is to be
marked off as constituting one member, to which is joined the
second, "received I forty stripes
save one." Then he returns to sections, and three are set down:
"Thrice was I beaten with rods,
once was I stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck." Next comes a
clause: "a night and a day I have
been in the deep." Next fourteen sections burst forth with a
vehemence which is most appropriate:
"In journeying often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers,
in perils by mine own countrymen, in
perils by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils in the
wilderness, in perils in the sea, in
perils among false brethren, in weariness and painfulness, in
watchings often, in hunger and thirst,
in fastings often, in cold and nakedness." After this comes in a
period of three members: "Besides
those things which are without, that which comets upon me daily,
the care of all the churches."
And to this he adds two clauses in a tone of inquiry: "Who is
weak, and I am not weak? who is
offended, and I burn not?" In fine, this whole passage, as if
panting for breath, winds up with a
period of two members: "If I must needs glory, I will glory of the
things which concern mine
infirmities." And I cannot sufficiently express how beautiful and
delightful it is when after this
outburst he rests himself, and gives the hearer rest, by
interposing a slight narrative. For he goes
on to say: "The God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, which is
blessed for evermore, knoweth
that I lie not." And then he tells, very briefly the danger he had
been in, and the way he escaped it.
14. It would be tedious to pursue the matter further, or to point
out the same facts in regard to
other passages of Holy Scripture. Suppose I had taken the further
trouble, at least in regard to the
passages I have quoted from the apostle's writings, to point out
figures of speech which are taught
in the art of rhetoric? Is it not more likely that serious men
would think I had gone too far, than
that any of the studious would think I had done enough? All these
things when taught by masters
are reckoned of great value; great prices are paid for them, and
the vendors puff them
magniloquently. And I fear lest I too should smack of that puffery
while thus descanting on
matters of this kind. It was necessary, however, to reply to the
ill-taught men who think our
authors contemptible; not because they do not possess, but because
they do not display, the
eloquence which these men value so highly.
15. But perhaps some one is thinking that I have selected the
Apostle Paul because he is our
great orator. For when he says, "Though I be rude in speech, yet
not in knowledge," he seems to
speak as if granting so much to his detractors, not as confessing
that he recognized its truth. If he
had said, "I am indeed rude in speech, but not in knowledge," we
could not in any way have put
another meaning upon it. He did not hesitate plainly to assert his
knowledge, because without it
he could not have been the teacher of the Gentiles. And certainly
if we bring forward anything of
his as a model of eloquence, we take it from those epistles which
even his very detractors, who
thought his bodily presence weak and his speech contemptible,
confessed to be weighty and
powerful. I see, then, that I must say something about the
eloquence of the prophets also, where
many things are concealed under a metaphorical style, which the
more completely they seem
buried under figures of speech, give the greater pleasure when
brought to light. In this place,
however, it is my duty to select a passage of such a kind that I
shall not be compelled to explain
the matter, but only to commend the style. And I shall do so,
quoting principally from the book of
that prophet who says that he was a shepherd or herdsman, and was
called by God from that
occupation, and sent to prophesy to the people of God. I shall
not, however, follow the
Septuagint translators, who, being themselves under the guidance
of the Holy Spirit in their
translation, seem to have altered some passages with the view of
directing the reader's attention
more particularly to the investigation of the spiritual sense;
(and hence some passages are more
obscure, because more figurative, in their translation;) but I
shall follow the translation made from
the Hebrew into Latin by the presbyter Jerome, a man thoroughly
acquainted with both tongues.
16. When, then, this rustic, or quondam rustic prophet, was
denouncing the godless, the proud,
the luxurious, and therefore the most neglectful of brotherly
love, he called aloud, saying: "Woe
to you who are at ease in Zion, and trust in the mountain of
Samaria, who are heads and chiefs of
the people, entering with pomp into the house of Israel! Pass ye
unto Calneh, and see; and from
thence go ye to Hamath the great; then go down to Gath of the
Philistines, and to all the best
kingdoms of these: is their border greater than your border? Ye
that are set apart for the day of
evil, and that come near to the seat of oppression; that lie upon
beds of ivory, and stretch
yourselves upon couches; that eat the lamb of the flock, and the
calves out of the midst of the
herd; that chant to the sound of the viol. They thought that they
had instruments of music like
David; drinking wine in bowls, and anointing themselves with the
costliest ointment: and they
were not grieved for the affliction of Joseph." Suppose those men
who, assuming to be
themselves learned and eloquent, despise our prophets as untaught
and unskilful of speech, had
been obliged to deliver a message like this, and to men such as
these, would they have chosen to
express themselves in any respect differently--those of them, at
least, who would have shrunk
from raving like madmen?
17. For what is there that sober ears could wish changed in this
speech? In the first place, the
invective itself; with what vehemence it throws itself upon the
drowsy senses to startle them into
wakefulness: "Woe to you who are at ease in Zion, and trust in the
mountains of Samaria, who
are heads and chiefs of the people, entering with pomp into the
house of Israel!" Next, that he
may use the favours of God, who has bestowed upon them ample
territory, to show their
ingratitude in trusting to the mountain of Samaria, where idols
were worshipped: "Pass ye unto Calneh," he says, "and see, and from thence go ye to Hamath the
great; then go down to Gath of
the Philistines, and to all the best kingdoms of these: is their
border greater than your border?" At
the same time also that these things are spoken of, the style is
adorned with names of places as
with lamps, such as "Zion," "Samaria," "Calneh," "Hamath the
great," and "Gath of the Philistine." Then the words
joined to these places are most appropriately varied: "ye are at
ease," "ye trust," "pass on," "go," "descend."
18. And then the future captivity under an oppressive king is
announced as approaching, when it is added: "Ye that are set apart
for the day of evil, and come near to the seat of oppression."
Then are subjoined the evils of luxury: "ye that lie upon beds of
ivory, and stretch yourselves upon couches; that eat the lamb from
the flock, and the calves out of the midst of the herd." These six
clauses form three periods of two members each. For he does not
say: "Ye who are set apart for the day of evil, who come near to
the seat of oppression, who sleep upon beds of ivory, who stretch
yourselves upon couches, who eat the lamb from the flock, and
calves out of the herd." If he had so expressed it, this would
have had its beauty: six separate clauses running on, the same
pronoun being repeated each time, and each clause finished by a
single effort of the speaker's voice. But it is more beautiful as
it is, the clauses being joined in pairs under the same pronoun,
and forming three sentences, one referring to the prophecy of the
captivity: "Ye that are set apart for the day of evil, and come
near the seat of oppression;" the second to lasciviousness: "ye
that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch yourselves upon couches;"
the third to gluttony: "who eat the lamb from the flock, and the
calves out of the midst of the herd." So that it is at the
discretion of the speaker whether he finish each clause separately
and make six altogether, or whether he suspend his voice at the
first, the third, and the fifth, and by joining the second to the
first, the fourth to the third, and the sixth to the fifth, make
three most elegant periods of two members each: one describing the
imminent catastrophe; another, the lascivious couch; and the
third, the luxurious table.
19. Next he reproaches them with their luxury in seeking pleasure
for the sense of hearing. And
here, when he had said, "Ye who chant to the sound of the viol,"
seeing that wise men may
practice music wisely, he, with wonderful skill of speech, checks
the flow of his invective, and not
now speaking to, but of, these men, and to show us that we must
distinguish the music of the wise
from the music of the voluptuary, he does not say, "Ye who chant
to the sound of the viol, and
think that ye have instruments of music like David;" but he first
addresses to themselves what it is
right the voluptuaries should hear, "Ye who chant to the sound of
the viol;" and then, turning to
others, he intimates that these men have not even skill in their
art: "they thought that they had
instruments of music like David; drinking wine in bowls, and
anointing themselves with the
costliest ointment." These three clauses are best pronounced when
the voice is suspended on the
first two members of the period, and comes to a pause on the
third.
20. But now as to the sentence which follows all these: "and they
were not grieved for the
affliction of Joseph." Whether this be pronounced continuously as
one clause, or whether with
more elegance we hold the words, "and they were not grieved,"
suspended on the voice, and then
add, "for the affliction of Joseph," so as to make a period of two
members; in any case, it is a
touch of marvelous beauty not to say, "and they were not grieved
for the affliction of their brother;" but to put Joseph for
brother, so as to indicate brothers in general by the proper name
of him who stands out illustrious from among his brethren, both in
regard to the injuries he suffered and the good return he made.
And, indeed, I do not know whether this figure of speech, by which
Joseph is put for brothers in general, is one of those laid down
in that art which I learnt and used to teach. But how beautiful it
is, and how it comes home to the intelligent reader, it is useless
to tell any one who does not himself feel it.
21. And a number of other points bearing on the laws of eloquence
could be found in this passage which I have chosen as an example.
But an intelligent reader will not be so much instructed by
carefully analysing it as kindled by reciting it with spirit. Nor
was it composed by man's art and care, but it flowed forth in
wisdom and eloquence from the divine mind; wisdom not aiming at
eloquence, yet eloquence not shrinking from wisdom. For if, as
certain very eloquent and acute men have perceived and said, the
rules which are laid down in the art of oratory could not have
been observed, and noted, and reduced to system, if they had not
first had their birth in the genius of orators, is it wonderful
that they should be found in the messengers of Him who is the
author of all genius? Therefore let us acknowledge that the
canonical writers are not only wise but eloquent also, with an
eloquence suited to a character and position like theirs.
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